The Western culture Essay Example For Students

The Western culture Essay Western-oriented modernism has greatly affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations around the world. This paper will focus on the construction of identity, gender and gender relations within the discourse of Westernization and modernization during the late-Ottoman Empire and early Republican Turkey. It attempts to show how social, political, and cultural institutions shape citizen identity and how redefinitions of them affect identity, gender, and gender roles in society. Examining the Pertev Bey series of three novels by Mi nevver Ayai lias primary source and some other various cultural and historical texts of the late-Ottoman and early Republican period in Turkey, this paper aims to search for the terms under which new forms of femininity and masculinity were constructed, especially within the private space of the family and in public debates, during the early twentieth century, which in turn changed gender relations to a great extent. The Western dominated concept of modernization has played an important role in the relationship of the West with non-Western countries. We will write a custom essay on The Western culture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The transformation of non-Western countries in response to the requirements set by the criteria and standards of the West has resulted in a variety of social, political, economical and cultural changes. Modernization has placed the responsibility on the non-West to aspire to the ideals of this movement in order to be considered as part of the network of the progressing countries. The effects of modernization have been influential on the formation of personal and social identities. The construction of gender relations as a result of a myriad of debates on individual identities has been an important area for examining the social and cultural consequences of modernism, which have greatly shaped human interactions into multiple directions. 2 During the early nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire struggled to accommodate its heritage consisting of political, social and cultural structures, institutions and values to the influences of the expanding Western colonial culture. Due to the disintegration within the Empire, resulting to a great extent from the wars and the influence of nationalism in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman society had to find ways to unify the society in the face of the loss of lands and power. One of the solutions for the Empire appeared to be Westernization among several other trends such as pan Islamism and Ottomanism. The acceptance of Westernization shaped many aspects of Ottoman life, especially individual identities and gender relations. The beginnings of Westernization are generally associated with the Tanzimat Fermani (Imperial Decree) of 1839 issued during the reign of Abdi lmecid. The word Tanzimat means regulations, and is used to refer to the period between 1839 and 1878 during which a considerable number of Western-inspired political and social reforms were carried out in the Ottoman Empire with the aim of solving the disintegration of the Empire. Despite the fact that the Tanzimat Fermani does not explicitly mention anything about family, women and womens education, there have been arguments that it has indirectly caused changes in the family and in the status of women. Rules for the behaviour of women in the public domain, new regulations on the institution of marriage, the emphasis on education for the improvement of marriages, the equation of family and women with the whole society resulted in changes in the positions and life conditions of women. Therefore, it is significant to study the Tanzimat period in order to examine the question of what types of female and male identities were discussed by both sexes within the framework of Westernization and modernism moving gender relations in different directions. 3 Both the period of Tanzimat and later of the Turkish Republic, which was founded in 1923 abolishing the political system of the Empire, are significant in the study of Westernization in Turkey. The approach of the Ottoman and the Republican towards Westernization have differences as well as similarities and both periods in Turkish history have contributed to the construction of individual and national identities, thus it is significant to study both of them to understand the various historical forces that have affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations. Based on this premise, this research paper uses the term Ottoman and Republican to refer to the two different periods and their changes in Turkish history and thus, to examine the effects of Westernization on the issue of identity in Turkey. Method and Sources The available sources prove the existence of avenues for the Ottoman subject to respond to new forms of self-expression, thus to voice individual concerns and questions about the imposition of new definitions on the self. Literature was one tool that the intellectuals of the Tanzimat and later periods used in order to convey different approaches towards the effects of Westernization on the formation of individual identities. The characters and plots of novels would, in a didactic way, try to show the reader the appropriate boundaries of Westernization. This research paper will analyze the Pertev Bey series by Mi nevver Ayai li , as primary sources, written in the 1960s about the disintegration of an Ottoman family during the early twentieth century. It will try to provide evidence for social and cultural changes referred to in the novel by examining studies done on various secondary sources, such as: historical narrative accounts, newspaper articles, images, advertisements, and books about the social, political and cultural reforms of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The premise, on which the research is based, is that it is almost inevitable for any non- Western country to be affected by the hegemony of the Western civilization, which has resulted 4 in many cases of complex interactions with the West. .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .postImageUrl , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:visited , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:active { border:0!important; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:active , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Music Censorship EssayThe content of texts and arguments will be interpreted within the analytical framework provided by the secondary sources in terms of the historical context of the period in which the arguments took place. Using mainly content analysis, this paper will examine social, cultural and political terms in texts for Ottoman subjecthood, citizenship, religious and national identities and for the definition and proposed characteristics of the acceptable and approved modern female and male individuals. Content analysis can help examine the deep underlying meanings and implications behind the verbal arguments in cultural texts. Paying attention to the intentions, tones, and word usage of the writers of these texts, this research will try to get at the individual attitudes, which can vary from cynical, paradoxical, and iron to appreciative, approving and celebratory, when confronted with the question of what type of female and male characteristics should be formed within the framework modernization and Westernization. The case of Turkey might be considered as a good example of the rhetorical domination of Westernization. However, it may limit the ability to make a general argument, as the heterogeneous nature of the Middle East, and of the non-West in general, would interfere with the notion of one specific way of dealing with Western influence. The variety of cultures within the region would challenge a stereotypical perspective on how each country has dealt with the influence of the West. The internal dynamics of each community may interfere with a general conclusion drawn from the study on Turkey about how each society has responded to the challenges faced in the encounter with the Western culture. This study is meant to be an examination of a particular and unique case. Some of the themes that are necessary in dealing with this topic are gendered politics, womens agency, patriarchal feminism, modernism and the family as the indigenous domain of social control. 5 Gendered Politics and Womens Agency Examining the formation of gender relations, this paper assumes the significance of studying both genders simultaneously as they are seen as contributing to each others formation through a dialectical relationship. Many arguments have been made about the neglect of the study on female experiences in understanding history. However, one must be careful not to equate the concept of gender with only female concerns, as it requires the male counterpart in its understanding. Among the thinkers using the term gendered politics, the importance of studying the agency of women in the formation of international politics and history has been acknowledged. Enloe in her book Bananas, Beaches and Bases, writing on international politics and feminism, criticizes patriarchal nationalism and gendered politics, which in her opinion prevent a full appreciation of history as they neglect the active participation of women in these fields. Patriarchal nationalism has perpetuated the inequalities in power relationships between sexes by viewing the female as the inferior subject that needs to accommodate to the wishes of the male elite. Thus, it has highly influenced the discourse on womens roles in the construction of a nation. Scotts poststructuralist approach to the study on the meaning of gender, in Gender and the Politics of History, bases its argument on the fact that gender is historically constructed, legitimated, challenged and maintained. The deconstruction of meaning by referring to oppositions, negations, hierarchical dependencies, exclusions and inclusions is, in Scotts opinion, significant when analyzing the unstable flowing word of gender. The term is manipulated by various forces that constantly interact to reshape its meaning. Therefore, it is essential, in studying the changes regarding gender during the late-Ottoman Empire, to situate it into the historical context including various social, cultural and political changes that might have 6 had different impacts on the creation of new definitions. The Tanzimat period, with its reforms and social trends and understandings, appears to be among those forces that reshaped gender, social and individual identities and relations. Frierson, in her analysis of the popular press during the reign of Abdi lhamid II, argues for the need to investigate the concept of gender with special focus on the agency of women in the process of modernization during the Hamidian era. She rightly thinks that his reign serves as an important source for the understanding of how later the proponents of Kemalism 1were able to mobilize women into the public sphere. The study of gender is essential, in her opinion, to grasp the process of state building, which is similar to the discourse by Enloe and Scott about the agency of women throughout history. Frierson analyzes the function of the popular press in educating the public about the reforms for Westernization and in providing ways, especially for women, to respond to the changes on individual identities. Literate women responded to the questions about the new identities imposed upon themselves under the impact of the modernizing language of Hamidian reforms. .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .postImageUrl , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:visited , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:active { border:0!important; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:active , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Hate Crimes EssayThus, their contribution to the historical changes of their societies needs to be analyzed as part of a study on the formation of gender relations affected by the consequences of a modernist discourse. Zilfi, in her work on Ottoman women of an earlier period, also argues that it is essential to focus on womens issues in the Ottoman Empire in order to see the broader picture on the Islamic past of women, which, in her opinion, has mainly consisted of pre-Ottoman past or Arabic sources in historical works. The book she edited consists of different articles that try to answer the question of womens active participation in the construction of their own social boundaries. Various studies on women and law, economy, vaki f (charity foundations) and marriage attempt to form a new framework to analyze womens experiences. Zilfi says; We argue that the elements of legal, physical and communal space converge to construct the 7 boundaries of Ottoman womens experiences (48) and continues; We replace the public/private dichotomy that has long dominated analysis of gender within the context of the Middle East with a new conception of womens experience. The new concept focuses on womans agency and traces her actions and interactions throughout all aspects of society, from everyday practices to material interests, from social rituals to symbolic expressions. (49) Zilfi appears to be on the same road with Enloe, Scott, and Frierson by tapping into the women question, acknowledging womens important role in the historical changes of their communities. Judith Tucker argues for recognition of the diversity in the Middle East, which in her opinion, requires scholars to form different criteria for studying gender in different contexts. She says that the variety of interpretations of Islam in the Middle East provide an example of the difficulty of generalizing or categorizing the Middle East and gender experiences in this region. The boundaries drawn and redrawn by historical, social, and contextual circumstances limit the ability to form generalizations about different cultures often considered to be in the same geographical region of the world. As the ideas Frierson, Enloe, Scott, Peteet, Tucker and Zilfi point out, for the purpose of this research paper, it is significant to start with the assumption that womens agency is significant in the construction of history. Digging into womens experiences of the modernization process, influenced to a great extent by both in the patriarchal society of the Ottomans and the patriarchal tendencies in the West, would enhance the understanding of the changes during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Turkey. Family and Patriarchal Feminism The Ottoman Empire, despite the fact that it was not colonized, can be considered having experienced a type of colonialism when it took the West as a model in certain respects for the purpose of solving the disintegration in the Empire during the late nineteenth century. Within this perspective, nationalism and colonialism become useful terms to talk about the relationship 8 between the West and the Ottoman Empire. Chatterjee, in his work The Nation and its Fragments, uses the term anti-colonial nationalism, which creates its own domain of sovereignity within colonial society well before it begins its political battle with imperial power. It does this by dividing the world of social institutions and practices into two domains-the material and the spiritual. (6) Nationalism declares the spiritual as its sovereign domain where it launches the fashioning of a modern, national culture. Family, usually defined as the sphere of the female, is one of the sites of spiritual domain where the nation has the power to prevent interference from outside forces. (Peteet) In the face of colonialism, culture has been the driving motivation behind assertion of self-identities. Cultural authenticity (Peteet) has served as a unifier in the process of fragmentation caused by the encounter with a new civilization. Women have been equated with the primary agents who would establish, maintain, strengthen, and transmit the indigenous authentic cultures. (Peteet) Therefore, it has been generally considered that male rulers and thinkers of societies have assigned several roles to women for the enhancement of the interests of the nation as a whole. With its patriarchal social structure, the Ottoman Empire is assumed to have exercised its male hegemony over the female specifically in the family, which surfaces as an essential place to search for definitions of individual identities and gender relations. Gi le, in her examination of the relationships between modernism, religion and gender relations, specifically in Turkey, focuses on the notion of women as agents and symbols of the civilizing project of the reformists in the society. The Western culture Essay Example For Students The Western culture Essay Western-oriented modernism has greatly affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations around the world. This paper will focus on the construction of identity, gender and gender relations within the discourse of Westernization and modernization during the late-Ottoman Empire and early Republican Turkey. It attempts to show how social, political, and cultural institutions shape citizen identity and how redefinitions of them affect identity, gender, and gender roles in society. Examining the Pertev Bey series of three novels by Mi nevver Ayai lias primary source and some other various cultural and historical texts of the late-Ottoman and early Republican period in Turkey, this paper aims to search for the terms under which new forms of femininity and masculinity were constructed, especially within the private space of the family and in public debates, during the early twentieth century, which in turn changed gender relations to a great extent. The Western dominated concept of modernization has played an important role in the relationship of the West with non-Western countries. We will write a custom essay on The Western culture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The transformation of non-Western countries in response to the requirements set by the criteria and standards of the West has resulted in a variety of social, political, economical and cultural changes. Modernization has placed the responsibility on the non-West to aspire to the ideals of this movement in order to be considered as part of the network of the progressing countries. The effects of modernization have been influential on the formation of personal and social identities. The construction of gender relations as a result of a myriad of debates on individual identities has been an important area for examining the social and cultural consequences of modernism, which have greatly shaped human interactions into multiple directions. 2 During the early nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire struggled to accommodate its heritage consisting of political, social and cultural structures, institutions and values to the influences of the expanding Western colonial culture. Due to the disintegration within the Empire, resulting to a great extent from the wars and the influence of nationalism in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman society had to find ways to unify the society in the face of the loss of lands and power. One of the solutions for the Empire appeared to be Westernization among several other trends such as pan Islamism and Ottomanism. The acceptance of Westernization shaped many aspects of Ottoman life, especially individual identities and gender relations. The beginnings of Westernization are generally associated with the Tanzimat Fermani (Imperial Decree) of 1839 issued during the reign of Abdi lmecid. The word Tanzimat means regulations, and is used to refer to the period between 1839 and 1878 during which a considerable number of Western-inspired political and social reforms were carried out in the Ottoman Empire with the aim of solving the disintegration of the Empire. Despite the fact that the Tanzimat Fermani does not explicitly mention anything about family, women and womens education, there have been arguments that it has indirectly caused changes in the family and in the status of women. Rules for the behaviour of women in the public domain, new regulations on the institution of marriage, the emphasis on education for the improvement of marriages, the equation of family and women with the whole society resulted in changes in the positions and life conditions of women. Therefore, it is significant to study the Tanzimat period in order to examine the question of what types of female and male identities were discussed by both sexes within the framework of Westernization and modernism moving gender relations in different directions. 3 Both the period of Tanzimat and later of the Turkish Republic, which was founded in 1923 abolishing the political system of the Empire, are significant in the study of Westernization in Turkey. The approach of the Ottoman and the Republican towards Westernization have differences as well as similarities and both periods in Turkish history have contributed to the construction of individual and national identities, thus it is significant to study both of them to understand the various historical forces that have affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations. Based on this premise, this research paper uses the term Ottoman and Republican to refer to the two different periods and their changes in Turkish history and thus, to examine the effects of Westernization on the issue of identity in Turkey. Method and Sources The available sources prove the existence of avenues for the Ottoman subject to respond to new forms of self-expression, thus to voice individual concerns and questions about the imposition of new definitions on the self. Literature was one tool that the intellectuals of the Tanzimat and later periods used in order to convey different approaches towards the effects of Westernization on the formation of individual identities. The characters and plots of novels would, in a didactic way, try to show the reader the appropriate boundaries of Westernization. This research paper will analyze the Pertev Bey series by Mi nevver Ayai li , as primary sources, written in the 1960s about the disintegration of an Ottoman family during the early twentieth century. It will try to provide evidence for social and cultural changes referred to in the novel by examining studies done on various secondary sources, such as: historical narrative accounts, newspaper articles, images, advertisements, and books about the social, political and cultural reforms of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The premise, on which the research is based, is that it is almost inevitable for any non- Western country to be affected by the hegemony of the Western civilization, which has resulted 4 in many cases of complex interactions with the West. .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .postImageUrl , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:visited , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:active { border:0!important; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:active , .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172 .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udadf78702e5d4a2cb0a4ce9e2e19c172:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Music Censorship EssayThe content of texts and arguments will be interpreted within the analytical framework provided by the secondary sources in terms of the historical context of the period in which the arguments took place. Using mainly content analysis, this paper will examine social, cultural and political terms in texts for Ottoman subjecthood, citizenship, religious and national identities and for the definition and proposed characteristics of the acceptable and approved modern female and male individuals. Content analysis can help examine the deep underlying meanings and implications behind the verbal arguments in cultural texts. Paying attention to the intentions, tones, and word usage of the writers of these texts, this research will try to get at the individual attitudes, which can vary from cynical, paradoxical, and iron to appreciative, approving and celebratory, when confronted with the question of what type of female and male characteristics should be formed within the framework modernization and Westernization. The case of Turkey might be considered as a good example of the rhetorical domination of Westernization. However, it may limit the ability to make a general argument, as the heterogeneous nature of the Middle East, and of the non-West in general, would interfere with the notion of one specific way of dealing with Western influence. The variety of cultures within the region would challenge a stereotypical perspective on how each country has dealt with the influence of the West. The internal dynamics of each community may interfere with a general conclusion drawn from the study on Turkey about how each society has responded to the challenges faced in the encounter with the Western culture. This study is meant to be an examination of a particular and unique case. Some of the themes that are necessary in dealing with this topic are gendered politics, womens agency, patriarchal feminism, modernism and the family as the indigenous domain of social control. 5 Gendered Politics and Womens Agency Examining the formation of gender relations, this paper assumes the significance of studying both genders simultaneously as they are seen as contributing to each others formation through a dialectical relationship. Many arguments have been made about the neglect of the study on female experiences in understanding history. However, one must be careful not to equate the concept of gender with only female concerns, as it requires the male counterpart in its understanding. Among the thinkers using the term gendered politics, the importance of studying the agency of women in the formation of international politics and history has been acknowledged. Enloe in her book Bananas, Beaches and Bases, writing on international politics and feminism, criticizes patriarchal nationalism and gendered politics, which in her opinion prevent a full appreciation of history as they neglect the active participation of women in these fields. Patriarchal nationalism has perpetuated the inequalities in power relationships between sexes by viewing the female as the inferior subject that needs to accommodate to the wishes of the male elite. Thus, it has highly influenced the discourse on womens roles in the construction of a nation. Scotts poststructuralist approach to the study on the meaning of gender, in Gender and the Politics of History, bases its argument on the fact that gender is historically constructed, legitimated, challenged and maintained. The deconstruction of meaning by referring to oppositions, negations, hierarchical dependencies, exclusions and inclusions is, in Scotts opinion, significant when analyzing the unstable flowing word of gender. The term is manipulated by various forces that constantly interact to reshape its meaning. Therefore, it is essential, in studying the changes regarding gender during the late-Ottoman Empire, to situate it into the historical context including various social, cultural and political changes that might have 6 had different impacts on the creation of new definitions. The Tanzimat period, with its reforms and social trends and understandings, appears to be among those forces that reshaped gender, social and individual identities and relations. Frierson, in her analysis of the popular press during the reign of Abdi lhamid II, argues for the need to investigate the concept of gender with special focus on the agency of women in the process of modernization during the Hamidian era. She rightly thinks that his reign serves as an important source for the understanding of how later the proponents of Kemalism 1were able to mobilize women into the public sphere. The study of gender is essential, in her opinion, to grasp the process of state building, which is similar to the discourse by Enloe and Scott about the agency of women throughout history. Frierson analyzes the function of the popular press in educating the public about the reforms for Westernization and in providing ways, especially for women, to respond to the changes on individual identities. Literate women responded to the questions about the new identities imposed upon themselves under the impact of the modernizing language of Hamidian reforms. .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .postImageUrl , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:visited , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:active { border:0!important; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:active , .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u98f9b46467c1be415c00ede73e7fbded:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Hate Crimes EssayThus, their contribution to the historical changes of their societies needs to be analyzed as part of a study on the formation of gender relations affected by the consequences of a modernist discourse. Zilfi, in her work on Ottoman women of an earlier period, also argues that it is essential to focus on womens issues in the Ottoman Empire in order to see the broader picture on the Islamic past of women, which, in her opinion, has mainly consisted of pre-Ottoman past or Arabic sources in historical works. The book she edited consists of different articles that try to answer the question of womens active participation in the construction of their own social boundaries. Various studies on women and law, economy, vaki f (charity foundations) and marriage attempt to form a new framework to analyze womens experiences. Zilfi says; We argue that the elements of legal, physical and communal space converge to construct the 7 boundaries of Ottoman womens experiences (48) and continues; We replace the public/private dichotomy that has long dominated analysis of gender within the context of the Middle East with a new conception of womens experience. The new concept focuses on womans agency and traces her actions and interactions throughout all aspects of society, from everyday practices to material interests, from social rituals to symbolic expressions. (49) Zilfi appears to be on the same road with Enloe, Scott, and Frierson by tapping into the women question, acknowledging womens important role in the historical changes of their communities. Judith Tucker argues for recognition of the diversity in the Middle East, which in her opinion, requires scholars to form different criteria for studying gender in different contexts. She says that the variety of interpretations of Islam in the Middle East provide an example of the difficulty of generalizing or categorizing the Middle East and gender experiences in this region. The boundaries drawn and redrawn by historical, social, and contextual circumstances limit the ability to form generalizations about different cultures often considered to be in the same geographical region of the world. As the ideas Frierson, Enloe, Scott, Peteet, Tucker and Zilfi point out, for the purpose of this research paper, it is significant to start with the assumption that womens agency is significant in the construction of history. Digging into womens experiences of the modernization process, influenced to a great extent by both in the patriarchal society of the Ottomans and the patriarchal tendencies in the West, would enhance the understanding of the changes during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Turkey. Family and Patriarchal Feminism The Ottoman Empire, despite the fact that it was not colonized, can be considered having experienced a type of colonialism when it took the West as a model in certain respects for the purpose of solving the disintegration in the Empire during the late nineteenth century. Within this perspective, nationalism and colonialism become useful terms to talk about the relationship 8 between the West and the Ottoman Empire. Chatterjee, in his work The Nation and its Fragments, uses the term anti-colonial nationalism, which creates its own domain of sovereignity within colonial society well before it begins its political battle with imperial power. It does this by dividing the world of social institutions and practices into two domains-the material and the spiritual. (6) Nationalism declares the spiritual as its sovereign domain where it launches the fashioning of a modern, national culture. Family, usually defined as the sphere of the female, is one of the sites of spiritual domain where the nation has the power to prevent interference from outside forces. (Peteet) In the face of colonialism, culture has been the driving motivation behind assertion of self-identities. Cultural authenticity (Peteet) has served as a unifier in the process of fragmentation caused by the encounter with a new civilization. Women have been equated with the primary agents who would establish, maintain, strengthen, and transmit the indigenous authentic cultures. (Peteet) Therefore, it has been generally considered that male rulers and thinkers of societies have assigned several roles to women for the enhancement of the interests of the nation as a whole. With its patriarchal social structure, the Ottoman Empire is assumed to have exercised its male hegemony over the female specifically in the family, which surfaces as an essential place to search for definitions of individual identities and gender relations. Gi le, in her examination of the relationships between modernism, religion and gender relations, specifically in Turkey, focuses on the notion of women as agents and symbols of the civilizing project of the reformists in the society. The Western culture Essay Example For Students The Western culture Essay Western-oriented modernism has greatly affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations around the world. This paper will focus on the construction of identity, gender and gender relations within the discourse of Westernization and modernization during the late-Ottoman Empire and early Republican Turkey. It attempts to show how social, political, and cultural institutions shape citizen identity and how redefinitions of them affect identity, gender, and gender roles in society. Examining the Pertev Bey series of three novels by Mi nevver Ayai lias primary source and some other various cultural and historical texts of the late-Ottoman and early Republican period in Turkey, this paper aims to search for the terms under which new forms of femininity and masculinity were constructed, especially within the private space of the family and in public debates, during the early twentieth century, which in turn changed gender relations to a great extent. The Western dominated concept of modernization has played an important role in the relationship of the West with non-Western countries. We will write a custom essay on The Western culture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The transformation of non-Western countries in response to the requirements set by the criteria and standards of the West has resulted in a variety of social, political, economical and cultural changes. Modernization has placed the responsibility on the non-West to aspire to the ideals of this movement in order to be considered as part of the network of the progressing countries. The effects of modernization have been influential on the formation of personal and social identities. The construction of gender relations as a result of a myriad of debates on individual identities has been an important area for examining the social and cultural consequences of modernism, which have greatly shaped human interactions into multiple directions. 2 During the early nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire struggled to accommodate its heritage consisting of political, social and cultural structures, institutions and values to the influences of the expanding Western colonial culture. Due to the disintegration within the Empire, resulting to a great extent from the wars and the influence of nationalism in the nineteenth century, the Ottoman society had to find ways to unify the society in the face of the loss of lands and power. One of the solutions for the Empire appeared to be Westernization among several other trends such as pan Islamism and Ottomanism. The acceptance of Westernization shaped many aspects of Ottoman life, especially individual identities and gender relations. The beginnings of Westernization are generally associated with the Tanzimat Fermani (Imperial Decree) of 1839 issued during the reign of Abdi lmecid. The word Tanzimat means regulations, and is used to refer to the period between 1839 and 1878 during which a considerable number of Western-inspired political and social reforms were carried out in the Ottoman Empire with the aim of solving the disintegration of the Empire. Despite the fact that the Tanzimat Fermani does not explicitly mention anything about family, women and womens education, there have been arguments that it has indirectly caused changes in the family and in the status of women. Rules for the behaviour of women in the public domain, new regulations on the institution of marriage, the emphasis on education for the improvement of marriages, the equation of family and women with the whole society resulted in changes in the positions and life conditions of women. Therefore, it is significant to study the Tanzimat period in order to examine the question of what types of female and male identities were discussed by both sexes within the framework of Westernization and modernism moving gender relations in different directions. 3 Both the period of Tanzimat and later of the Turkish Republic, which was founded in 1923 abolishing the political system of the Empire, are significant in the study of Westernization in Turkey. The approach of the Ottoman and the Republican towards Westernization have differences as well as similarities and both periods in Turkish history have contributed to the construction of individual and national identities, thus it is significant to study both of them to understand the various historical forces that have affected the formation of individual identities and gender relations. Based on this premise, this research paper uses the term Ottoman and Republican to refer to the two different periods and their changes in Turkish history and thus, to examine the effects of Westernization on the issue of identity in Turkey. Method and Sources The available sources prove the existence of avenues for the Ottoman subject to respond to new forms of self-expression, thus to voice individual concerns and questions about the imposition of new definitions on the self. Literature was one tool that the intellectuals of the Tanzimat and later periods used in order to convey different approaches towards the effects of Westernization on the formation of individual identities. The characters and plots of novels would, in a didactic way, try to show the reader the appropriate boundaries of Westernization. This research paper will analyze the Pertev Bey series by Mi nevver Ayai li , as primary sources, written in the 1960s about the disintegration of an Ottoman family during the early twentieth century. It will try to provide evidence for social and cultural changes referred to in the novel by examining studies done on various secondary sources, such as: historical narrative accounts, newspaper articles, images, advertisements, and books about the social, political and cultural reforms of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The premise, on which the research is based, is that it is almost inevitable for any non- Western country to be affected by the hegemony of the Western civilization, which has resulted 4 in many cases of complex interactions with the West. .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .postImageUrl , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:hover , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:visited , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:active { border:0!important; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:active , .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u695a3c94d2c720a4a114685c604dd4ba:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Road Not Taken - an analyis EssayThe content of texts and arguments will be interpreted within the analytical framework provided by the secondary sources in terms of the historical context of the period in which the arguments took place. Using mainly content analysis, this paper will examine social, cultural and political terms in texts for Ottoman subjecthood, citizenship, religious and national identities and for the definition and proposed characteristics of the acceptable and approved modern female and male individuals. Content analysis can help examine the deep underlying meanings and implications behind the verbal arguments in cultural texts. Paying attention to the intentions, tones, and word usage of the writers of these texts, this research will try to get at the individual attitudes, which can vary from cynical, paradoxical, and iron to appreciative, approving and celebratory, when confronted with the question of what type of female and male characteristics should be formed within the framework modernization and Westernization. The case of Turkey might be considered as a good example of the rhetorical domination of Westernization. However, it may limit the ability to make a general argument, as the heterogeneous nature of the Middle East, and of the non-West in general, would interfere with the notion of one specific way of dealing with Western influence. The variety of cultures within the region would challenge a stereotypical perspective on how each country has dealt with the influence of the West. The internal dynamics of each community may interfere with a general conclusion drawn from the study on Turkey about how each society has responded to the challenges faced in the encounter with the Western culture. This study is meant to be an examination of a particular and unique case. Some of the themes that are necessary in dealing with this topic are gendered politics, womens agency, patriarchal feminism, modernism and the family as the indigenous domain of social control. 5 Gendered Politics and Womens Agency Examining the formation of gender relations, this paper assumes the significance of studying both genders simultaneously as they are seen as contributing to each others formation through a dialectical relationship. Many arguments have been made about the neglect of the study on female experiences in understanding history. However, one must be careful not to equate the concept of gender with only female concerns, as it requires the male counterpart in its understanding. Among the thinkers using the term gendered politics, the importance of studying the agency of women in the formation of international politics and history has been acknowledged. Enloe in her book Bananas, Beaches and Bases, writing on international politics and feminism, criticizes patriarchal nationalism and gendered politics, which in her opinion prevent a full appreciation of history as they neglect the active participation of women in these fields. Patriarchal nationalism has perpetuated the inequalities in power relationships between sexes by viewing the female as the inferior subject that needs to accommodate to the wishes of the male elite. Thus, it has highly influenced the discourse on womens roles in the construction of a nation. Scotts poststructuralist approach to the study on the meaning of gender, in Gender and the Politics of History, bases its argument on the fact that gender is historically constructed, legitimated, challenged and maintained. The deconstruction of meaning by referring to oppositions, negations, hierarchical dependencies, exclusions and inclusions is, in Scotts opinion, significant when analyzing the unstable flowing word of gender. The term is manipulated by various forces that constantly interact to reshape its meaning. Therefore, it is essential, in studying the changes regarding gender during the late-Ottoman Empire, to situate it into the historical context including various social, cultural and political changes that might have 6 had different impacts on the creation of new definitions. The Tanzimat period, with its reforms and social trends and understandings, appears to be among those forces that reshaped gender, social and individual identities and relations. Frierson, in her analysis of the popular press during the reign of Abdi lhamid II, argues for the need to investigate the concept of gender with special focus on the agency of women in the process of modernization during the Hamidian era. She rightly thinks that his reign serves as an important source for the understanding of how later the proponents of Kemalism 1were able to mobilize women into the public sphere. The study of gender is essential, in her opinion, to grasp the process of state building, which is similar to the discourse by Enloe and Scott about the agency of women throughout history. Frierson analyzes the function of the popular press in educating the public about the reforms for Westernization and in providing ways, especially for women, to respond to the changes on individual identities. Literate women responded to the questions about the new identities imposed upon themselves under the impact of the modernizing language of Hamidian reforms. .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .postImageUrl , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:hover , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:visited , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:active { border:0!important; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:active , .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4 .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6c32687aef8ce87557a3a6aeede29dd4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Losing Creativity Growing Up EssayThus, their contribution to the historical changes of their societies needs to be analyzed as part of a study on the formation of gender relations affected by the consequences of a modernist discourse. Zilfi, in her work on Ottoman women of an earlier period, also argues that it is essential to focus on womens issues in the Ottoman Empire in order to see the broader picture on the Islamic past of women, which, in her opinion, has mainly consisted of pre-Ottoman past or Arabic sources in historical works. The book she edited consists of different articles that try to answer the question of womens active participation in the construction of their own social boundaries. Various studies on women and law, economy, vaki f (charity foundations) and marriage attempt to form a new framework to analyze womens experiences. Zilfi says; We argue that the elements of legal, physical and communal space converge to construct the 7 boundaries of Ottoman womens experiences (48) and continues; We replace the public/private dichotomy that has long dominated analysis of gender within the context of the Middle East with a new conception of womens experience. The new concept focuses on womans agency and traces her actions and interactions throughout all aspects of society, from everyday practices to material interests, from social rituals to symbolic expressions. (49) Zilfi appears to be on the same road with Enloe, Scott, and Frierson by tapping into the women question, acknowledging womens important role in the historical changes of their communities. Judith Tucker argues for recognition of the diversity in the Middle East, which in her opinion, requires scholars to form different criteria for studying gender in different contexts. She says that the variety of interpretations of Islam in the Middle East provide an example of the difficulty of generalizing or categorizing the Middle East and gender experiences in this region. The boundaries drawn and redrawn by historical, social, and contextual circumstances limit the ability to form generalizations about different cultures often considered to be in the same geographical region of the world. As the ideas Frierson, Enloe, Scott, Peteet, Tucker and Zilfi point out, for the purpose of this research paper, it is significant to start with the assumption that womens agency is significant in the construction of history. Digging into womens experiences of the modernization process, influenced to a great extent by both in the patriarchal society of the Ottomans and the patriarchal tendencies in the West, would enhance the understanding of the changes during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century Turkey. Family and Patriarchal Feminism The Ottoman Empire, despite the fact that it was not colonized, can be considered having experienced a type of colonialism when it took the West as a model in certain respects for the purpose of solving the disintegration in the Empire during the late nineteenth century. Within this perspective, nationalism and colonialism become useful terms to talk about the relationship 8 between the West and the Ottoman Empire. Chatterjee, in his work The Nation and its Fragments, uses the term anti-colonial nationalism, which creates its own domain of sovereignity within colonial society well before it begins its political battle with imperial power. It does this by dividing the world of social institutions and practices into two domains-the material and the spiritual. (6) Nationalism declares the spiritual as its sovereign domain where it launches the fashioning of a modern, national culture. Family, usually defined as the sphere of the female, is one of the sites of spiritual domain where the nation has the power to prevent interference from outside forces. (Peteet) In the face of colonialism, culture has been the driving motivation behind assertion of self-identities. Cultural authenticity (Peteet) has served as a unifier in the process of fragmentation caused by the encounter with a new civilization. Women have been equated with the primary agents who would establish, maintain, strengthen, and transmit the indigenous authentic cultures. (Peteet) Therefore, it has been generally considered that male rulers and thinkers of societies have assigned several roles to women for the enhancement of the interests of the nation as a whole. With its patriarchal social structure, the Ottoman Empire is assumed to have exercised its male hegemony over the female specifically in the family, which surfaces as an essential place to search for definitions of individual identities and gender relations. Gi le, in her examination of the relationships between modernism, religion and gender relations, specifically in Turkey, focuses on the notion of women as agents and symbols of the civilizing project of the reformists in the society.

WISH By Bobby Anne Mason Essays

WISH By Bobby Anne Mason Essays WISH By Bobby Anne Mason Essay WISH By Bobby Anne Mason Essay Bobby Anne Mason’s â€Å"Wish† actually pursues the different issues with regards aging and how it actually involves an individual in becoming the best he could be as a person towards his growth. Aging is a normal issue among humans. However, the process by which people go through with the said phase of life is quite different based form the different perspectives of each person towards life and its zest towards one’s own being and development. This is what is particularly handled within the narration of Bobby Anne Mason in the said story. She particularly used language that would likely be more affecting to the people who are involved in the said phase of life. To emphasize the said use of language, the author particularly utilized the words to send forth emotional point of understanding that actually brings forth a clarified vision to the readers so as to understand the real message behind the story. Besides this particular fact, the author has also been able to convey a particular understanding to readers with regards the implication of the matter with regards the life-wishes of aging individuals. The touching way by which the author introduced the message of the story has actually increased the capability of the story to become a picturesque of the human life’s reality that is obviously striking to the human mind. With the descriptions that she used, she was able to touch the reality of the matter that raises the truth about the wishes of those nearing their life’s end. With all the elements of physical and mental weakness that is actually involved in the situation, it could be observed that the matter is of serious consideration among humans today. People who have members of their family undergoing this phase would better understand the said situation in a matter of realizing the hardships and wishes that the aged individuals are being faced with. Overall, the clarity of narration that mason presented made her story a strong manifestation of the truth about wishes and its implication in the times of human aging. Reference: Mason, Bobbie Ann. â€Å"Wish. † The Art of the Story. Ed. Daniel Halpern. New York: Penguin Group, 1999. 380-386.

End of the Vietnam War - Fall of Saigon

End of the Vietnam War - Fall of Saigon Previous Page | Vietnam War 101 Working for Peace With the failure of the 1972 Easter Offensive, North Vietnamese leader Le Duc Tho became concerned that his nation could become isolated if President Richard Nixons policy of dà ©tente softened relations between the United States and his allies, the Soviet Union and China.  As such he relaxed the Norths position in the ongoing peace negotiations and stated that the South Vietnamese government could remain in power as the two sides sought a permanent solution.  Responding to this change,  Nixon’s National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger, commenced secret talks with Tho in October.  Ã‚   After ten days, these proved successful and a draft peace document was produced.  Angered at having been excluded from the talks, South Vietnamese President Nguyen Van Thieu demanded major alterations to the document and spoke out against the proposed peace.  In response, the North Vietnamese published the details of the agreement and stalled the negotiations. Feeling that Hanoi had attempted to embarrass him and to force them back the table, Nixon ordered the bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong in late December 1972 (Operation Linebacker II). On January 15, 1973, after pressuring South Vietnam to accept the peace deal, Nixon announced the end of offensive operations against North Vietnam. Paris Peace Accords The Paris Peace Accords ending the conflict were signed January 27, 1973, and were followed by the withdrawal of the remaining American troops. The terms of the accords called for a complete ceasefire in South Vietnam, allowed North Vietnamese forces to retain the territory they had captured, released US prisoners of war, and called for both sides to find a political solution to the conflict. To achieve a lasting peace, the Saigon government and Vietcong were work towards a lasting settlement that would result in free and democratic elections in South Vietnam.  As an enticement to Thieu, Nixon offered US airpower to enforce the peace terms. Standing Alone, South Vietnam Falls With US forces gone from the country, South Vietnam stood alone. Though the Paris Peace Accords were in place, fighting continued and in January 1974 Thieu publicly stated that the agreement was no longer in effect. The situation worsened the following year with the fall of Richard Nixon due to Watergate and passage of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1974 by Congress which cut off all military aid to Saigon. This act removed the threat of air strikes should North Vietnam break the terms of the accords. Shortly after the act’s passage, North Vietnam began a limited offensive in Phuoc Long Province to test Saigon’s resolve. The province fell quickly and Hanoi pressed the attack. Surprised by the ease of their advance, against largely incompetent ARVN forces, the North Vietnamese stormed through the south, and threatened Saigon.  With the enemy nearing, President Gerald Ford ordered the evacuation of American personnel and embassy staff.  In addition, efforts were made to remove as many friendly South Vietnamese refugees as possible.  These missions were accomplished through Operations Babylift, New Life, and Frequent Wind in the weeks and days before the city fell.  Advancing quickly, North Vietnamese troops finally captured Saigon on April 30, 1975. South Vietnam surrendered the same day. After thirty years of conflict, Ho Chi Minh’s vision of a united, communist Vietnam had been realized. Casualties of the Vietnam War During the Vietnam War, the United States suffered 58,119 killed, 153,303 wounded, and 1,948 missing in action. Casualty figures for the Republic of Vietnam are estimated at 230,000 killed and 1,169,763 wounded. Combined the North Vietnamese Army and the Viet Cong suffered approximately 1,100,000 killed in action and an unknown number of wounded. It is estimated that between 2 to 4 million Vietnamese civilians were killed during the conflict. Previous Page | Vietnam War 101

An effective training evaluation plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

An effective training evaluation plan - Essay Example The benefits of employee training often come in the long run after the employees have fully gained the skills needed. During hard economic times when companies consider cutting on costs, some managers may like to do away with the department of training and development as it is a n expense in the short term. This however is not a good move since the benefits of having the department are far much greater than the short term costs. Scraping off the department implies that the workforce may not be able to enhance their skills and the organization may not therefore be able to cope with the changes in the business environment, including hard economic times. During difficult economic times like recessions, companies and organizations need to have a well informed and skilled workforce that is capable of making the right decisions to keep the organization going. This is not the time to do away with the department. One of the most important resources of any organization is its workforce (Monta na, and Bruce, 2000). The more skilled and knowledgeable an organization’s workforce is, the better the organization. An organization can ensure its employees have the best skills and knowledge in their professions by having a good recruitment policy that ensures the best candidates are given opportunities to work for the organization. ... Employee training and development has a direct effect on the overall performance and success of an organization (William, and Kazanas, 2004). Employees and top managers are directly involved in decision making processes that shape the future of the organization and actively contribute to the production of goods and services. Through training the employees are able to advance and improve on their skills and knowledge so as to be better placed to increase their performance levels and improve the organization’s performance. Benefits of Employee Training Employee training and development is beneficial to both the organization and the employees. Among the benefits that employee training has to an organization include having a motivated workforce, increased performance levels, increased profits, increased staff loyalty and retention, and great customer care (Cohn, Khurana, and Reeves, 2005). Investment in employee training helps the organization to have a motivated workforce. The em ployee will feel that their employer cares for them and their career and therefore be highly motivated to perform their duties. When the employees are motivated to work, there will be a great working environment with minimum confrontations between the management and junior employees or among the employees themselves. This ensures there is harmony in the workplace. This is good for the organization because it ensures the employees concentrate on their main objectives of helping the organization achieve its goals (Cohn, Khurana, and Reeves, 2005). Employee training and development is also beneficial to the organization because it leads to increased performance levels of employees. This ensures that

GATT Priciples in International Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

GATT Priciples in International Economics - Essay Example The General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) is a voluntary agreement to give tariff concessions and reduce restriction on imports among 135 countries of the world (Blirtit). The agreement was formulated within the jurisdiction and framework of the World Trade Organization (WTO). There are four basic principles covered by GATT. These are: (1) discrimination is prohibited in trade relations, (2) Tariffs instead of trade barriers should be utilized by countries to protect themselves from foreign competition, (3) all member nation must promote the trading interest of each country, (4) negotiations between concerting terms of trade must follow the GATT framework (Blirtit). These principles have a positive influence in international trade. Discriminatory practices against a particular country hurt the balance of trade among nations. For example if the US discriminated against Argentina’s agricultural products it would hurt the internal economy of this nation which subsequently affects the purchasing power of Argentina and the amount of trade activity with other nations. An example of a discriminatory trade practice that can hurt a local economy of a GATT member nation is dumping. Dumping occurs when one country exports a significant amount of goods to another country at prices much lower than the domestic marketplace (Anwers, 2009). The anti-discriminatory clauses with the GATT principles provide a safeguard that protects the integrity of trade relations in the international economy. Tariffs are am instruments which creates a tax imposition on imports that raise the price and can be used to manipulate the demand specific goods and service imports. The good thing about this economic tool is that it provides consistency as far as creating a simple mechanism that can be utilized by any country to protect local industries. The GATT principles stipulate that tariffs should be the universal

Romeo and Juliet Essay Example for Free

Romeo and Juliet Essay The Tragedy of Romeo and Juliet The deaths of Romeo and Juliet in William Shakespeare’s play are both friar and Sr. Capulet. This takes place in Italy. Although much could have been done to prevent their suicides, these â€Å"star-crossed lovers† ultimately are not able to avoid their destiny. A series of unfortunate circumstances result in disaster, and even though many people could be to blame for their deaths, the friar plays a particularly integral role. While some believe that sr. Capulet is responsible for Romeo and Juliet’s death, this is not the case. Upon further investigation the friar should receive the blame. Admittedly, Sr. Capulet has a large influence on Romeo and Juliet’s death because he forced Juliet to marrying Paris. But, the friar married Juliet and Romeo without anyone finding out and if he wouldn’t have married them then Juliet would have never killed herself because she wouldn’t have a reason to. For example the first reason why Friar Lawrence is responsible for the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet is when he married them he knew what he was getting into and what the consequences were but he didn’t care. Also the second reason is in act 4 scene 5 the Friar Lawrence quotes â€Å"Your part in her you could not keep from death, but heaven keeps his part in eternal life† he means that he approved her death even though it wasn’t real. So the friar is a bad planner and liar. He didn’t plan Juliet’s â€Å"death† on time to let Romeo know it was not real so he believed it and suicide himself so he could be with her. If the friar planned her death without rushing Romeo would have found out her death wasn’t realistic and that the friar planned it so Juliet wouldn’t have to marry Paris and they could live happily in Verona, Italy. A third reason is because he sends Romeo a letter about Juliet’s death and where Romeo is suppose to meet Juliet and take her to verona

Gender based difference in managerial styles Essays -- essays research

Executive Summary This report looks at several researches that have studied the managerial styles of males and females with an attempt to define perceived differences between them. In addition discussed are the results from studies on the effectiveness of managers between the two genders. The results of these studies have been analyzed through readings of several researches and personal experiences of the students doing this report. Studies say both genders are at least equally effective in the business world and that success is affected by diverse individual factors and has very less to do with gender. Commonly held perceptions of males being more effective managers are not only a loss to the female manager, but a loss to the organization and society as a whole. A note on the report writers The team consists of six members – five males and one female. The gents are in Executive positions with at least four years of full-time work experience and the lady a middle level manager with a total of 10 years in the corporate world out of which five have been in a management position. Although cultural issues are out of the scope of this assignment, the ethnicity of the members is thought to be relevant. All group members are from the Indian sub-continent, except one member who is a Middle Eastern male. All members work experience have been derived in the UAE and most members have been in the country for at least six years. Snap-shots of the brainstorming session Researches Used Extensive researches have been conducted on the topic of gender-based difference in managerial styles. All members prior to commencing of the session have thoroughly read these. An example of one of the researches used has been attached in the appendix and outlined below: Management Research Group (MRG) has conducted a study on gender differences and leadership that claims to have eliminated key shortcomings that other such researches have, such as small number of participants, reliance on self-reports, use of inappropriate subjects, uncontrolled differences etc. This research claims to be the largest controlled study of gender differences in leadership style with data compiled over 15 years. Further details of this research participants and form of research can be found in the research report in the appendix section. Discussion between the team members Almo... ...9-560. Eagly, A. H., & Johnson, B. T., 1990 Gender and leadership style: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, p: 108, 233-256. Kabacoff R, Peters H, 1998 â€Å"The Way Women and Men Lead – Different but Equally Effective.† Management Research Group Research Report: Leadership & Gender. http://www.mrg.com/Publications/articles/The_Way_Women-Men_Lead.pdf [Accessed: November 17, 2004] Eagly et al, â€Å"Transformational, Transactional, and Laissez-Faire Leadership Styles: A Meta-Analysis Comparing Women and Men† Psychological Bulletin http://www.ratcow.com/paf508/lazzifar_leader.html Formichelle, L, 2001, He Does, She Does Management styles may differ, but success isn’t gender-related.http://www.wellsfargo.com/biz/products/resources/advisor/archives/012002He/012002He.jhtml Robbins, S. P. 2004,10th edition, Organisational Behaviour, Prentice Hall, USA. Turner, D. H. â€Å"Gender differences in management style: Evidence from the accounting profession†, The Centre for the study of Women, Science and Technology. http://www.wst.gatech.edu/Gender_Differences_in_Management_Style.ppt [Accessed: November 14, 2004] http://www.kon.org/archives/forum/12-1/prehl.html

Racism in the Adventures of Huckleberry Finn Essay

Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, and other black anti-racist leaders fought against discrimination. They fought a battle that has gone on longer than many people have been around, back in the 1800’s. In the book The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn written by Mark Twain, twain wants us to see how this battle rages on today, affecting many people’s everyday lives. The book itself is very racist toward African Americans in which the word â€Å"nigger† is used. Many people use this word today, but back when Huck was around using vulgar discriminating words was a regular thing. So the question is how is racism still shown today in the 20th century and the relationship in how Twain describes it in his book? First racial thing in the book is when Toms talking to Huck about breaking Jim out of jail. Tom says, â€Å"Give a nigger a inch and he e’ll† (88). When he says this he is saying that if you give a black person freedom, it’s giving them way too much. But Huck isn’t fond of using such a poignant word to Jim. Racism plays a big part when the King and the Duke show up on the raft with them. When they stay with the girls in the house, the sophomoric type of Duke says â€Å"I should ‘a’ reckoned the differences in the rank would sejested that a corn-shuck bed wont fit for me to sleep on . Your Grace’ll take the shuck bed yourself† (126). This shows his destitute for taking Jim seriously as a person and not just some dumb slave. The use of racist and vulgar words was constantly heard from the white adults as well as the children in the novel. â€Å"Â…was Jim a runaway nigger?†(126). Out of all the pieces of literature this book is known by many people worldwide, not only does things in this book still happen today, we can all relate this book. The lack of care the whites had for blacks, thus, the whites have lost nearly all of their respect. This was Mark Twain’s indirect way of showing the whites inequality to the blacks. In today’s age, the ideas of racism have definitely changed. Slavery is no more, and even the use of such language as â€Å"nigger,† is considered vulgar. But, as children such as Huck and Tom grew up considering slavery the â€Å"normal,† children today grow up learning the exact opposite.

Negative impact of modern technology on students

IntroductionThe paradigm shift in the contemporary society in relation to the learning environment witnessed in the wake of a new light of advancement in technology has had all sorts of impact on various entities in the society. The forces of globalization have been viewed directly as destructive in many ways though this is still debatable as it is subjective of personal judgment. When technology fails to be used constructively or when it does not find an effective application, technology becomes detrimental to autonomy in thinking and action.This technology has seen introduction of the gadgets of science into the classrooms, study rooms and to be specific, to the students’ life. It has impeded the capability of self creativity in students as they leave all thinking to machines like computer and the hi-tech learning gadgets. Most people argue that modern technology has a negative impact on the socialization of students because it eliminates need for physical activity, impairs critical thinking skills, and limits face to face interaction.DiscussionLimits face to face interactionThis is not a subject one would conclude at once by leaning on one particular side. It is therefore imperative to critically look at both sides of the divide and an analyze views on the basis of zero bias. On the contrary, and in support of the argument above, we find that technology has invaded the learning environment and turned it upside down. The introduction of computers in schools, for example, has reduced the level of student- to-student interaction and in its stead placed student-to-computer interaction to rule supreme. (Glenn M. Kleiman (2000) The Digital Classroom- http://hepg.org/hel-home/home).This means that the students spend most of their time relating and communicating with the machines rather than face-to-face interaction of the students to each other. This later on leads to development of ethical dilemmas in the future society. In such a milieu the learner prefers to associate with ‘non-physical’ characters on TV, net or web. This leads to stereotyping behavior in students. Recent research carried out in 2001, (Seemann, E. et al-(2001).Also see C. Crawford et al. 2001 , reveals that the use of computer mediated communication and technology in the learning environment has great impact in changing the lives of students in the classroom. It further indicates that through modern technology, students’ behavior in terms of interactions with the teachers and the tutors is immensely influenced as well as that among the students themselves. This approach, the researchers argue, downplays the significance of social contact hence may lead many students to fail in developing the necessary social skills to function in the world..Impediment to Critical thinkingSecondly, the use of the modern technology in learning environment may be a substantial threat to the ability of students to develop high level of critical thinking. This means t hat since the use of computer aided communication will entail the fingers pressing for a click of the mouse, liberation of ideas will be thwarted and thus hinder creativity. When there is no liberation of ideas there’s little or no creativity and therefore originality and subsequent development take a back seat. Because of availability of a machine with ready-to-use programs, the student will not care questioning of the present method of approach to a problem and therefore will not discover new ways and means of solving a given problem.Eliminates need for physical activityThe technology can also play quite a significant role in producing laziness in terms of reduced physical dexterity to engage in any exercise that involves exercise to the body. The importance physical exercises play to the body is of great relevance to the healthy development of a physically fit individual. The above research also reiterates that even physical activity by students becomes a nightmare as the only involvement of the student will be the hand or fingers, the eyes together with ears- if there be any additional item on the list, it should be nothing other than maximum fixation to the screen, (Seaman, E. et al-(2001)).Opposing argumentsOn the other side of the divide lies the great relevance computer aided communication and technology based learning have in modeling individual students in the classroom and the society. Those who argue that the relevance of technology in a learning environment is absolute contend that though the technology may have some negative impacts, the positive achievements are far much superb and outweigh the negative ones.   This argument holds that a student needs to develop the skills referred to as the multiple intelligences (Howard Gardner, 1983).Gardner says that the use of the powerful technological enables speeded development of these intelligences. In addition, human machine interaction enables an individual to think, communicate and delibera te on ideas through development of creativity in words, speech and writing. Most modern technology like some computer software that allows young children to and illustrate their own narratives or stories before their motor skills are fully developed enhance learning and creativity to start early in life.Even though the use of computer aided communication and the technology in the conveyance of learning information is objected by some, learners are able to interact closely with mathematical intelligences which enable them to memorize, and carry out mathematical operations in addition to thinking mathematically, analytically and logically before applying the understanding to solve problem. Through these modern systems students are able to interact with scientists exploring the depths of certain places but electronically.The students also develop high ability to understand the world they live in through what they see thus developing spatial or visual intelligence. By development of kin esthetic intelligence students are able to learn through dexterity and coordination thus developing the ability to express their feelings better thereby removing any doubts of ethical dilemmas. The students too can have musical intelligence thus be able to perform and appreciate or create music by whichever means, voice, dance or instruments. Though some scholars argue and maintain that use of the technology reduces the student’s socialization capability, others maintain that in the real sense the technology gives the student the chance to gain high levels of interpersonal intelligence thus being able to cooperatively work with others. This is done through electronic networking.RefutationThe bias that is revealed when trying to analyze the argument from one viewpoint is quite evident. Technology has been of great importance in improving the quality of education, the efficiency in acquisition of information and effective application of positive changes in the society and reali zation of the relevance of these changes to the learning environment.At the same time, it would still be unwise to refute the negative impacts of the technology to the social relations, physical activity and critical thinking of the students in their classrooms. However, the positive role played in enhancing the appreciation of technology in the learning environment cannot go without being lauded. The role for sure supersedes by far the demerits that accompany it.ConclusionTo be of maximum benefit and relevance, application of technology in the learning environment must be applied with care and consideration in order to make the learning process to be qualitatively different and attractive. As we embrace the benefits of having technology, we must also prepare to deal with its negativities. This way, the learning process in the classroom can become richer and pose less threat to the values and autonomy of every individual student. Otherwise it would have an impact that is not desirab le whether the learning environment is home-based or institutional one.References:Seemann, E., Wilkinson, L., et al. Impact of Technology on Socialization of Student in the Classroom, 2001.Kleiman, Glenn M. The Digital Classroom- 2000. Accessed on Friday April 25, 2008 from URL: http://hepg.org/hel-home/homeCrawford et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Teacher Education and Information Technology. International Conference; 2001 pp. 104-108.

Limitations on three strikes law essays

Limitations on three strikes law essays Limitation on Three-Strikes Law Of all the 2004 ballot propositions, I believe that Proposition 66 has the most significant impact on California. Proposition 66 would put limits on the current three-strikes law that California has in affect. This not only makes things less harsh for criminals who dont necessarily deserve 25 years to life for not so severe felonies, but it also greatly impacts the lives of the general population of California. There is a direct connection between the rising prison costs and the current three-strikes law. The prison system in California is the largest in the entire United States and has a budget of over 3.5 billion dollars a year. California tax-payers pay to house over 161,000 inmates, and over half of the inmates convicted under the three-strikes law were convicted of non-violent crimes (Proposition 66...), resulting in overcrowded prisons and higher taxes for Californians. There are three kinds of crimes: felonies, misdemeanors, and infractions. A felony is the most serious type of crime. About 18 percent of people convicted of a felony are sent to state prison. The rest are supervised on probation in the community, sentenced to county jail, or both. Existing law classifies some felonies as violent or serious, or both. Of the inmates sentenced to prison in 2003, approximately 30 percent were convicted for crimes defined as serious or violent (Marianne 1). Examples of felonies currently defined as violent include murder, robbery, and rape and other sex offenses. Felonies defined as serious include the same offenses defined as violent felonies, but also include other offenses such as burglary of a residence and assault with intent to commit robbery. Before 1994, Californians had to witness several highly publicized murder cases. A few of these included 18 year old Kimberly Reynolds getting shot, and 12 year old Polly ...

Ban Chiang Culture And Dong Son Culture History Essay

Ban Chiang Culture And Dong Son Culture History Essay For the origin of the metalwork in Southeast Asia, there were many different opinions of the scholars. Some scholars support that the metalwork in Southeast Asia was origin locally and some of them support that it was from India and China. But unluckily, there is not enough evidence to prove which of them would be the truth. Therefore, the origin of the metalwork in Southeast Asia is not clear and uncertain. Compare with the Ban Chiang culture, the Dong son culture was appeared later in Southeast Asia. The Dong son was also one of the flourishing cultures during Bronze and Iron Age period in Southeast Asia. In geography, the center of the Dong son culture was located in the Red river valley at the North Vietnam. It was named by the village where the archeologists had found. The Dong son culture was not form independently and it was probably developed from the local Neolithic cultures at Vietnam such as the Dong dau. Different to the Ban Chiang, there was the monarch kingdom (VÄà †â€™n Lang and Au Lac) appeared in Vietnam. The Dong son people did trade in Southeast Asia and also China and India by sea, it made the Dong son culture was influenced and transformed by the Indian and the Chinese. In 43 AD., the Dong son was occupied and rude by the Han dynasty in China. The characteristic of the Dong son culture was the bronze object with the high level craftsmanship. Till the Dong son period, the people mastered the technology and skill of the bronze making, they used the metals to make many different kind of metal tools. The metallurgy and the bronze making was in a very high level, and they developed their own sophisticated metallurgy techniques based on the special quality of the bamboo and they were able to use the bamboo to fashion a fire-piston that produced the heat required to liquefy metal.   [ 1 ]    The Dong son people used the metal tools in their life, especially the bronze. They used the bronze in making the agricultural tools such as the ploug hshare, axe, spade, sickles and hoe etc, (few of them were made by iron) it reflected that the agriculture was high developed in Dong son and the ploughshare was the typical agricultural bronze tools in this culture, it showed and proved that the Dong son people had already domesticated and used the water buffalos’ strength in their agricultural activities. Besides the agricultural tools, many weapons were found in the relics of the Dong son culture. It might reflect that there were wars happened in this region. There were various of weapons were found and it included the arrows, axe, daggers, spears, swords and breastplates etc., different kind of these weapons showed that the military technology of the Dong son people was quite completed. On the other hands, the weapons were rich of decorative patterns, those patterns were vividly and detailed. The weapons were made in many different shape and the patterns was usually animals and human figures, it represented that the metal lurgic technology of the Dong son people was very sophisticated and we can also see what the Dong son people looked like from the patterns.

Grand Alliance after World War II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Grand Alliance after World War II - Essay Example The seeds of suspicion sown on both sides and the anxieties of a cooperative post-war worldview resulted in the exaggerated misinterpretation of the motivations of the adversarial ideologies. At the foundation of the split in the Grand Alliance was the mutual fear that each adversary had expansionist policies as its driving force behind their foreign policy. While the Soviets professed a desire for coexistence and cooperation, the West discounted these attitudes and instead focused on Soviet demands for influence in the Near East, Middle East, and Far East (Roberts 21). The United States held the position that the Soviets had a program designed and driven by their goal of world domination. With the post-war Soviet encroachment into Eastern Europe, Kennan's policy of containment had realigned British and American thinking to accept a more aggressive policy of rollback. By the end of 1946, Truman and Attlee were both in agreement that the Soviet Union " posed a direct threat to Western interests and were agreed on the pressing need to modify Soviet behaviour" (White 35). The United States and Britain discounted the ability to negotiate with the Soviets. Soviet statements a nd activities promoting themselves as an equal partner were interpreted as expansionist and aggressive. Stalin was Stalin was also suspicious of the West's motivations and interpreted their foreign policy as being designed to dominate the world stage and the Soviet Union. At the foundation of this mistrust was the atomic bomb and the West's refusal to share nuclear technology. Stalin understood the implications of possessing the atomic bomb, and the fact that the Americans and British had kept it a secret prompted the Soviets to embark on an intense program to develop their own nuclear technology triggering the beginnings of a nuclear standoff (Zubok and Pleshakov 44-45). Stalin would not accept being anything less than an equal partner in the Grand Alliance and was willing to postpone any premature confrontations before getting the bomb. This put the Soviets into the position of retuning to the old Leninist model of igniting revolutions in Iran, Greece, and elsewhere aimed at increasing communist influence and providing the USSR with greater national security (Zubok and Pleshakov 45). Stalin's a ctivities were a response to the unrealistic perception of the threat that the West posed to the Soviets. The mutual suspicions and reactionary fears on both sides began during the war and were a product of wartime necessity. At the heart of the situation was the division of Europe and the Soviet influence in the Eastern satellite countries. The political landscape in Europe was born out of the realities of providing security in Europe during the war. Wartime agreements among the Grand Alliance had given political control of Eastern Europe to the Red Army as a means of providing security for the region during the war and had been bolstered by the growing impact of the communist party in these countries during the post-war period (Roberts 18). By March, 1946 former Prime Minister Churchill was denouncing the growing Soviet influence and gave a speech in Fulton Missouri which coined the phrase 'iron curtain' (Roberts 14). While there was still a spirit of cooperation among the Alliance, the policy of mistrust was